Papers
Revised estimates of the Underground Economy: Implications of U.S. Currency held Abroad
Published in "The Underground Economy:Global Evidence of its Size and Impact,1997
The paper reexamines the strengths and weakness of all direct and indirect methods of estimating the amount of US currency held abroad and concludes that between 25% -45% of US currency is held abroad. This result stands in sharp contrast to the widely cited estimates presented by Porter and Judson (1996) who claim that between 55% -70% of US currency is held abroad. The new estimates of currency held abroad are used to derive a domestic currency series which is then employed in a conventional currency ratio model to estimate the size and growth of the unreported economy in the US between 1973 and 1994.
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Currency Velocity and Cash Payments in the U.S. Economy: The Currency Enigma
This paper develops a demographic model of the currency population by examining the birth and death rates of specific denominations of currency. This framework permits empirical estimation of the average lifetime of notes in circulation and hence the currency velocity (turnovers per year) of each denomination. The velocity of currency times the stock of currency produces estimates of the annual volume of cash payments. Since the volume of check payments (debits to checkable accounts) is regularly recorded, our estimates of cash payments can be used to estimate the total volume of transactions (MV) from the payment side of Fisher’s equation of exchange. The paper goes on to examine the “currency enigma” from the perspective of both “missing currency” and “missing payments”. The estimated volume of cash payments is so high when compared to personal consumption expenditures, that one is led to the conclusion that a large fraction of the US currency supply is held abroad, and that there is a sizable underground (unreported and perhaps unrecorded) economy in the United States.

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